INTRODUCTION TO THE NEW TESTAMENT
1.
Alexander the Great and the Period of the Successors
Alexander
the Great died in 323 BCE. After his death, there was a
period of intense political infighting among the possible successors
of Alexander, who neither named a successor before his death nor had
a son who was a viable candidate for king. The period after Alexander's
death is known as the Diadochan period (Greek diadochos = successor). Eventually
Alexander's unified empire was broken into smaller
Hellenistic kingdoms, two of which were the Seleucid kingdom—stretching
from Asia Minor eastward—and the Ptolemaic kingdom, which was
centered in Egypt. Judea was originally a part of the Ptolemaic kingdom,
but was incorporated into the Seleucid kingdom c. 198 BCE under Antiochus
III, after one of many wars between the two kingdoms, known as the Syrian
Wars. Succeeding Antiochus III was Seleucus IV Eupator and after him
comes Antiochus IV Epiphanes. About this time Rome was beginning to
make its presence felt in the eastern Mediterranean. 2.
The Beginnings of the Rise of Rome as a World Power
Rome had taken control of Italy by the middle of the third century BCE. During the latter half of the third century BCE, Rome engaged in a conflict for supremacy with Carthage; the resulting wars were known as the Punic wars. (Punicus was the word that the Romans used for a Cathaginian.) In the First Punic War (264-41 BCE), Rome fought Carthage for control of Sicily and won. In the Second Punic War (218-201 BCE), Rome and Carthage fought again, and Hannibal invaded Italy, fighting the Romans on their own territory. The Romans eventually prevailed, and in 201 BCE, Carthage surrendered to Rome and was forced to cede Spain to Roman control. In 151-146 BCE, Rome fought with Carthage again, in the Third Punic War (149-46 BCE), and this time Rome devastated Carthage, eliminating it as a world power.
In the second century BCE, Rome also came into conflict with the Macedonian (or Antigonid) kingdom, which eventually led to its conquest by Rome. The Macedonian Kingdom had allied itself with Carthage during the First Punic War, thereby making enemies of the Romans. Between 215-206 BCE, Rome, allied with the Aetolian League, Sparta, and Pergamum, defeated Philip V, king of the Macedonian kingdom, and his ally, the Achaian League, forcing Philip to agree to peace on terms favorable to the Romans and its allies (First Macedonian War). The enemies of Philip V complained to Rome that Philip was infringing on their territory; the senate declared war, and Rome defeated Philip's forces (Second Macedonian War) (200-196 BCE). The decisive battle was at Cunoscephalae in Thessaly in 196 BCE. Philip was to pay indemnity and divest himself of all Greek territory; the Greeks were granted freedom but allied themselves with Rome, following Rome’s direction. After the Second Macedonian War, the Seleucid kingdom, ruled by Antiochus III, taking advantage of the confusion in Macedonia/Greece, sought to take control of parts of Asia Minor and Thrace that once belonged to the Macedonian kingdom. In 190 BCE, however, at the battle of Magnesia, the Romans defeated the Seleucid kingdom. This was a foreshadowing of a greater Roman presence in the eastern Mediterranean.
3.
Judea from the Early Second Century BCE to 67 BCE
Judea as part of the Seleucid kingdom existed in an uneasy relationship with its overlord. A major source of tension was the issue of Hellenism, which was the state-supported culture of the Seleucid kingdom; the Seleucid rulers encouraged Hellenism among their subject peoples in hope of unifying them into a single culture, thereby lessening the possibility of dissension and revolt. There was a political faction of Jews in Judea that was in favor of the Hellenization of Jewish society, to whom 1 & 2 Maccabees refer in unfavorable terms (these men are called "men outside the law" or "the lawless men"). In 174 BCE Onias III, the High Priest, was deposed by Antiochus IV in favor of his brother Joshua, who went by the Hellenistic name of Jason. The High Priest functioned as the ruler and representative of the Jewish people. Joshua (Jason) offered Antiochus IV money and cooperation in the process of Hellenization, if he made him High Priest; Antiochus accepted the offer. Joshua (Jason) was High Priest for three years (174-171 BCE), during which time he built a gymnasion in Jerusalem, a cultural institution instrumental in the promotion of Hellenistic culture and established an ephebate, intended for Jewish adolescent males (ephebes). (The purpose of an ephebate, or ephebeia, was the education and military training of the male children of the ruling class.) It would seem that the goal of Joshua (Jason) was to convert Jerusalem into a Hellenistic city (polis) within the Seleucid kingdom.
 Silver Drachma (175-64 BCE) |
In 168 BCE, Antiochus IV resumed his campaign against the Ptolemaic kingdom in order to consolidate his previous gains, but this time, before he could carry out his intentions, the Roman general Popilius Laeneas sent an ultimatum to Antiochus IV ordering him to withdraw from Egypt or else be considered an enemy of Rome (the Ptolemaic kingdom had become an ally of Rome). Antiochus IV withdrew unwillingly; instead of attacking Egypt, he ordered that Jerusalem become a Hellenistic city and that Judaism become an outlawed religion and way of life. (Exactly why Antiochus IV began a religious persecution against the Jews is not clear and is a matter of debate.) Those Jews who would not cooperate would be killed and their wives and children sold into slavery. The Jews were forbidden to circumcise their children, observe the Sabbath, in short, to do anything that would mark them off as Jews. A pagan altar was placed upon the altar in the Temple and animals—including pigs—were sacrificed to the Olympic Zeus. Probably, the rationale given for this action was that the God of the Hebrew Bible should be identified with Zeus, the head of the Greek pantheon; in other words, the Jews were not abandoning their ancestral God but simply recognizing that God's universality. The worship of the other Greek gods was also introduced in Jerusalem and other parts of Judea; pagan altars were built and Jews were encourage to participate in sacrifices at these altars. As indicated, there were Jews who welcomed the policy of forced Hellenization and cooperated with Antiochus IV; but there were also those who opposed the policy and refused to abandon the Law, the conformity to which made the Jews distinctive as a people. This led to a Jewish civil war between those who supported the measures taken by Antiochus IV and those who opposed them.
In a town called Modein, near Jerusalem, an officer of the king required that the people of the town sacrifice at a pagan altar. A man named Matthatias, a priest who had five sons, was present, and when a Jew went forward to offer the sacrifice, Matthatias killed him and the officer of the king, and fled to the mountains with his family and some supporters. This began the Maccabean revolt in 167 BCE. Matthatias died later that year, and was succeeded by his son Judas, who was nicknamed "Maccabee," probably meaning "hammer"; his family was known by the name Hasmon, from which the adjective Hasmonean has its origin. Judas rallied to himself many Jews who in 1 Maccabees are called collectively the Chasidim ("the pious ones") and together they won battle after battle against the Seleucid armies until Judas established himself and his followers as the de facto ruling force in Jerusalem and Judea. Judas set out to reverse the effects of the policy of forced Hellenization, and in 165 BCE purified and rededicated the Temple. This event became the reason and basis of a new, post-biblical festival called Chanukkah ('Dedication'). There were many Jews, however, who opposed Judas and rejected his anti-Hellenistic, isolationist policies. Judas met his end on the battlefield in 160 BCE.
The period of time from Judas' victory until the conquest of Judea by the Roman general Pompey saw the expansion of the Jewish state through conquest under the leadership of the Hasmoneans (the Maccabeans) and their descendants, though they continued to fight with the Seleucids and with pro-Seleucid Jews who opposed them. There were also Jews who were equally as anti-Hellenistic as the Hasmoneans but who withdrew their support from them, most notably the group that became known as the Essenes, who identify themselves as "the community" (ychd) in the Dead Sea Scrolls. Judas founded a dynasty that lasted several generations. A series of Hasmonean rulers emerged during this period, brothers or Hasmonean descendants: Judas (165-60 BCE); Jonathan (160-142 BCE); Simon (142-134 BCE); John Hyrcanus (son of Simon 134-104 BCE); Aristobolus (son of John Hyrcanus 104-103 BCE); Alexander Jannaeus (son of John Hyrcanus 103-76 BCE). As time went on, the Hasmoneans assumed for themselves both the high priesthood and kingship.
Coin Minted by John
Hyrcanus I
 Bronze Prutah (135-104 BCE) |
4.
Pompey and the End of Jewish Independence Jewish
and Roman histories begin to intersect in the early part of the first
century BCE, so that one cannot discuss Jewish history of this period
without discussing Roman history (the reverse is not as true, of course).
When Salome died in 67 BCE, there arose a conflict between Hyrcanus
II and his brother Aristobolus II over who would succeed their mother
as both High Priest and king; these two brothers were leaders of de
facto poltical parties within the Jewish state. Aristobolus II declared
war on Hyrcanus II, and in a decisive battle many of the soldiers supporting
Hyrcanus II deserted to Aristobolus II. Hyrcanus II agreed that his
brother Aristobolus II would be High Priest and king. But the matter
did not end there. Antipater, an Idumean who was appointed governor
of Idumea by Alexander Jannaeus, the father of the two brothers, took
up the cause of Hyrcanus II and with the military support of the Nabatean
king Aretas—who had lost much territory to the Jews—marched
to Jerusalem, laid siege to the city and demanded that Hyrcanus II be
reinstated as High Priest and be appointed king.
Meanwhile, the Roman general Pompey (Gaius Pompeius Magnus) by the authority of the Roman senate had gone to Asia Minor in order to put down a rebellion by Mithridates VI Eupator, the king of Pontus.
Pompey
defeated Mithridates in 66 BCE in what is called the Third Mithridatic
War (74-63 BCE). While in Asia Minor, Pompey heard of the dispute going
on in Jerusalem between Hyrcanus II and Aristobolus II from one of his
generals, Scaurus, who had been sent to Syria. Scaurus began to travel
to Judea to sort out and capitalize politically on this internal crisis
of the Jews. Hearing that the Roman general was on his way to Judea,
both Aristobolus II and Hyrcanus II sent emissaries to him in order
to gain his support for their respective causes; this was the beginning
of the end of the Hasmonean dynasty. Scaurus temporarily decided in
favor of Aristobolus II and ordered Aretas to withdraw, which he did.
In the meantime, Pompey conquered Syria, and Syria was made into a Roman
province with a proconsul; this was the end of the Seleucid kingdom.
In 63 BCE, Pompey met with Aristobolus II and Hyrcanus II in Damascus to hear their respective cases for being appointed High Priest and king of the Jewish state. (A third delegation of Jews requested that the monarchy be abolished, but Pompey did not take its request too seriously.) Pompey asked both brothers to stay in Damascus and to wait on his decision. Aristobolus II, however, left Damascus without Pompey's permission, so that Pompey justifiably suspected Aristobolus II to be disloyal to him and the Romans in general. So with some of his troops Pompey pursued Aristobolus II (and those with him), who eventually surrendered near Jericho. In the meantime, the people of Jerusalem shut the gates of the city against Gabinius, who was sent to Jerusalem by Pompey to get money that Aristobolus II had promised (i.e. a bribe) and to take possession of the city. Having taken Aristobolus II as a prisoner, Pompey then marched on the city, and the gates were opened to him by the followers of Hyrcanus II. The supporters of Aristobolus II were forced to take refuge in the Temple. Pompey besieged the Temple, and within three months broke through the walls and allegedly killed about 12,000 Jews. (This is according to Josephus, who tends to exaggerate when it comes to numbers.) Afterwards the borders of the former Jewish state were greatly reduced; what remained was the regions of Judea, Idumea, Perea and Galilee. Pompey installed Hyrcanus II as High Priest, but did not give him the title of king; he took Aristobolus II and many other Jewish prisoners of war to Rome where they were resettled. A few years later Hyrcanus II was stripped of all political power, and Gabinius, now proconsul of Syria, divided what territory remained of the Hasmonean state into five regions, under his immediate control, each with its own captial city. This was the end of an independent Jewish state.
5.
The Rise of Herod the Great
In Rome, a civil war erupted between Pompey and Julius Caesar in 49 BCE, former members of the first triumvirate,
the
other being Crassus, who had died. (The first triumvirate was formed
in 59 BCE in response to the crisis in the Roman republic caused by
the social unrest in Rome and Italy.) At first Hyrcanus II, the High
Priest, and Antipater, who was the power behind Hyrcanus II, supported
Pompey, as most from the east did, but quickly switched allegiances
when it was discovered that Caesar and his allies had been victorious
over Pompey, who had fled to Egypt and was killed in 48 BCE by Caesar's
allies there. Hyrcanus II and Antipater provided Caesar with military
support in his war with Ptolemy XIII, an ally of Pompey. After his victory
Julius Caesar was given autocratic powers by the Roman senate to carry
through the necessary reforms to bring stability to the Roman empire;
he was proclaimed dictator (an ancient political position of
absolute power in times of crisis) in 46 BCE for ten years and in 45
BCE it became a life appointment; he held the consulship several times
and was the pontifex maximus. He also took the title imperator,
a military position of "commander-in-chief." The Roman
republic had come to an end. In gratitude for the help given to him,
Caesar confirmed Hyrcanus II as High Priest and also appointed him ethnarch
of the Jews, while Antipater received the appointment of procurator
(epitropos) of Judea. (As indicated, Antipater was not ethnically
a Jew but an Idumean.) Antipater had two sons, Phasael and Herod, both
of whom were quite active militarily and politically in various capacities.
|
Brutus
and Cassius, part of a conspiracy to restore the Roman republic; Marcus
Antonius, a consul and supporter of Caesar sought to avenge the death
of Caesar, with the result that another civil war broke out in the Roman
empire. Antipater and Hyrcanus II allied themselves with Cassius. Marcus
Antonius and Octavius with the legions under their command, however,
defeated Brutus and Cassius and their legions in 42 BCE. This began
the time of the second triumvirate composed of Marcus Antonius, Octavius
and Lepidus. Antipater was murdered in 43 BCE. Although they, like their
father, had supported Cassius, after the death of Cassius, Herod and
Phasael along with Hyrcanus II quickly changed their allegiance and
managed to convince Marcus Antonius (by means of a bribe) that they
would be loyal to him.
In 40 BCE Antigonus, a son of Aristobulus II, allied with the Parthians, the enemies of Rome, gained control of Jerusalem; a Hasmonean was once again king. Antigonus took Hyrcanus II and Phasael prisoners. Herod escaped to Masada, and Phasael killed himself. Antigonus had the ears of his uncle Hyrcanus II cut off in order to disqualify him as High Priest, a position that he then assumed. Meanwhile, Herod left Masada and arrived in Rome in 40 BCE. He gained the confidence of Marcus Antonius and Octavius (Lepidus no longer shared power with the other two triumvirs at this point). The Roman senate granted Herod the title of king of the Jews, and in 37 BCE he marched to Jerusalem with Roman military help and regained the city. From 37 until 4 BCE, Herod reigned in Jerusalem and gradually with the approval of the Romans expanded his kingdom to include most of Palestine; his kingdom included both Jews and gentiles, but he did not follow the Hasmonean policy of forcibly converting Gentiles to Judaism. It is at this point that the events described in the New Testament begin to take place.
| *
Matthew 2:1-12
What is the event involving Herod the Great
described in the Gospel of Matthew? Herod the Great is the one described in the Gospel of Matthew as the one to whom the magi came and the one who murdered all the boys age two and under in Bethlehem. |
Herod
maintained tight control of Palestine as a client king of the Romans.
During his reign, he undertook many building projects, including an
expansion of the Jerusalem Temple and the construction of the port-city
of Caesarea Maritime. Early in Herod's reign, Marcus Antonius and Octavius
had a falling out, which led to another civil war. They had agreed to
share power in the empire, Marcus Antonius the east and Ocatvius the
west. Marcus Antonius became involved with Cleopatra VII, of Ptolemaic
royal lineage, and began to behave as an oriental despot rather than
as a Roman. As a result, Octavius, with the support of the Roman senate,
fought and defeated him at the battle of Actium in Greece in 31 BCE.
Although they managed to escape to Alexandria, Marcus Antonius and Cleopatra
VII realized that there was no way of eluding Octavius, so that both
committed suicide. In all this upheaval, Herod had supported Octavius,
so his position at the end of the civil war was secure. The senate changed
Octavius' name to Augustus and
gave him the title of princeps ("leader") and imperator
("commander-in-chief"); although officially the senate had
all authority, in actuality a dyarchy was in place. It is customary
to called this form of government the principate.
- Map of Herod's kingdom
- Some of Herod's Building Projects (excluding the Temple): The Herodion; Caesarea Maritima; Masada; Herod's Palace at Jericho
- Coins Minted by Herod
- The Theodotus Inscription
- Artifacts from Upper City in Jerusalem
| *Luke
2:1-7
What role does Augustus have in the determining
where Mary would give birth to Jesus? Augustus issued a decree that a census should be taken, which resulted in Mary's going to Bethlehem from Nazareth with Josephus, who was probably a permanent resident of Bethlehem. |
 Site excavated by Y. Magan in the late1990's |
Ruins
of Synagogue
at Kiryat Sefer
In
the Second-Temple period, near an ancient road from Caesarea
to Jerusalem was located a village known as Kiryat Sefer. The
village was built around a synagogue, which was 9.6 m. wide
on each side. A center row of columns divided the synagogue,
thereby creating two aisles. Arches supported the roof. Around
three of the synagogue's interior walls were situated stone
benches (the exception being the entrance wall). On the western
wall was situation an entrance to a small, plastered room, which
probably served as a storage room for objects used in the synagogue.
|
6.
Jewish History from Herod's Death to the Jewish War
Herod died of an long, painful illness in 4 BCE, and he bequeathed his kingdom to three of his sons, Archelaus, Herod Antipas and Philip; Herod's kingdom was to be divided among them.
 |
Josephus
reports that that Herod the Great was buried at the Herodion,
and recent excavations may have uncovered what may be the remains
of Herod's sarcophagus. It seems that Herod's sarcophagus was
broken into many pieces, perhaps by the revolutionaries who took
refuge in the Herodion during the Jewish War with Rome. From the
partial reconstruction, it can be determined that the sarcophagus
was ornate with floral decoration. No bodily remains have been
found, however. |
According to Josephus, after Herod's death, there was much political and social unrest, which indicates how discontent many Jews were with being a part of the Roman empire. Before he left for Rome, Archelaus suppressed with military force political unrest in Jerusalem during Passover, which then escalated to become actual armed revolt. Archelaeus restored the peace by sending in his whole army. Another rebellion broke out after Archelaeus' departure for Rome, during Pentecost (Festival of Weeks), which was suppressed by Varus, the proconsul of Syria. Varus then left for Antioch, leaving behind a legion to deal with the problems. After Varus' departure, there was more rebellion in Jerusalem, caused in part by the corruption of the procurator Sabinus. Outside of Jerusalem, in the absence of an immediate successor to Herod, there arose three claimants to the throne. Each had his followers with enough military support to be dangerous to the public peace. First, Judas, son of Ezekias (Hezekiah), and his armed supporters terrorize Galilee. Second, in Jericho, Simon, a former slave of Herod the Great, declared himself to be king. He and his followers, many of whom came from Perea, burned the royal palace at Jericho, and plundered other royal residences. He was defeated by the Roman Gratus, who caught up with him in a valley and cut off his head. Finally, a man named Athronges, a shepherd, named himself king with support of his four brothers in Judea; each of the brothers was a commander of a militia. Eventually, after a protracted conflict with Archelaeus, these militias were defeated one by one.
 |
Gabriel's Revelation or the Vision of Gabriel Probably found near the Dead Sea in Jordan, Gabriel's Revelation is a one meter high stone with eighty-seven lines of of Hebrew text written on it in two columns. The stone is broken, and some of its text is faded and illegible. The text appears to be short prophecies written in the first person. One prophecy may be of a man who was killed and commanded to rise from the dead after three days by the angel Gabriel: "In three days you shall li[ve], I, Gabriel, [command you]” (l. 80). But it should be noted that the word "live" is not certain because two of its four letters are very faded. Israel Knohl of Hebrew University argues that the man who was killed is Simon the revolutionary who, according to Josephus, was beheaded by the Roman Gratus. On this hypothessis, the text's prophetic passages were probably written by Simon's followers. Knohl further claims that Simon is the first known instance of a suffering and resurrected Messiah. That the person addressed by the Gabriel was Simon, however, is extremely conjectural. |
| What
do the following passages from the gospels say about Herod Antipas? * Mark 6:14-29 = Matt 14:1-12 = Luke 9:7-9 Herod (Antipas) arrested and executes John the Baptist. In Luke 9:9, Herod (Antipas) thought that Jesus was John the Baptist raised from the dead. * Luke 13:32 Jesus derisively called Herod (Antipas) "that fox," implying Jesus' disapproval of him. * Luke 23:6-12 Pilate sent Jesus to Herod (Antipas) after he discovered that Jesus was from Galilee and fell under his jurisdiction. Herod (Antipas) was glad to have this opportunity to interview Jesus because of his reputation. |
| *
Mark 8:27
Which significant event took place in Caesarea
Philippi? Peter confessed Jesus as the Christ in Caesarea Philippi. |
| *
Matt 2:22
What influence did Archelaus exert in determining
where Jesus would grow up? Because Archelaus was ruling over Judea, Joseph takes Mary and Jesus to live in Galilee, after leaving Egypt. Joseph was afraid of Archelaus. |
| *
Mark 15:1-15 = Matt 27:1-2; 11-26; Luke 23:1-6; 13-25; John 18:28-19:16
What significant role does Pontius Pilate
play in the gospels? Pilate was the Roman authority who sanctions Jesus' execution, under pressure from the Jewish leadership. |
- Map of the Political Divisions of Palestine at the Time of Jesus' Ministry
- The Sea of Galilee
- Jordan River
- The Synagogue at Capernaum
- Galilean Fishing Boat
- Foot Bone of Crucified Man
- Ossuary of Caiaphas
- Pool of Siloam
| What do the following passages from
the Book of Acts say about Herod Agrippa I? * Acts 12:1-3 Herod (i.e., Herod Agrippa I) executed James and imprisoned Peter. * Acts 12:21-23 Herod (i.e., Herod Agrippa I) died under the judgment of God, because he did not give glory to God (see also Josephus' account of the death of Herod Agrippa I in Ant. 19.344-53) |
| *
Acts 24:24-25:12
What role did Antonius Felix and Porcius Festus
procurators play in the life of the apostle Paul? Both men were involved in the Paul's imprisonment and legal proceedings surrounding his trial. |
| *
Acts 25:13-26:32
What connection did Herod Agrippa II have
to the apostle Paul? Herod Agrippa II, along with his sister Berenice, came to Caesarea, where Paul was in confinement, and there interviewed Paul concerning the charges laid against him. |
 |
Mikveh
This mikveh
(ritual bath of purification) is located south of the old city
walls in Jerusalem and dates from the second-Temple period. Jews
would cleanse themselves from ritual impurity in a mikveh in order
to be qualified to enter the Temple (see ritual impurity in Lev
14, 15; Num 19). One would enter the mikveh through one entrance
and exit it through the other. |
uprising
by sending the Roman general Vespasian
with 60,000 legionaries, auxillaries and allies under his charge. Departing
from Antioch in Syria, between 66 and 68 Vespasian retook Galilee; he
then moved south to Judea, and besieged Jerusalem in 68. Nero died,
however, in 68, and there erupted chaos in Rome over who would succeed
him as emperor. Vespasian lifted his siege of Jerusalem until political
stability in Rome was re-established. The Jewish rebels interpreted
this as victory. Galba was acclaimed emperor, and Vespasian sent his
son Titus to Rome to convey a greeting to him; but before he arrived,
he heard in Corinth that Galba had been murdered. Titus returned to
his father in Caesarea. After Galba, Vitellius was proclaimed emperor.
In 69, the legions under Vespasian's command acclaimed him as a rival
emperor to Vitellius. Since Vitellius was murdered in 69, Vespasian
encountered little opposition when returned to Rome to make good on
his claim to being the new Roman emperor.
Vespasian left his son Titus in Palestine in charge of the army consisting
of four legions; Titus then resumed the siege of Jerusalem in 70. After
many successful campaigns at taking regions of the city, Titus succeeded
in breaking into the Temple where many of the Jewish rebels and the
remaining civilian population had retreated. The Romans killed almost
all the Jews in the Temple area and burned or otherwise destroyed the
Temple structures. There remained only the upper city of 
Jerusalem
to take, which the Romans soon did. The Romans kept alive a select few
to march in a triumphal procession in Rome; after the procession the
prisoners were executed. With the destruction of Jerusalem there remained
three fortresses still held by the Zealots, one of which was Masada;
by 73 these had also been taken (see Tacitus, Histories, 5.1-13
for a Roman perspective on Jewish history, including the destruction
of the Temple [5.10-13]; other sources for this period in Roman history include
Tacitus, Histories, 2.1-4, 79-93; 4.81; 5.12-26; Suetonius, Vespasian
5-6; Titus, 4-5; Dio Cassius, Roman History 66.1, 4-7,
15).
Jerusalem
to take, which the Romans soon did. The Romans kept alive a select few
to march in a triumphal procession in Rome; after the procession the
prisoners were executed. With the destruction of Jerusalem there remained
three fortresses still held by the Zealots, one of which was Masada;
by 73 these had also been taken (see Tacitus, Histories, 5.1-13
for a Roman perspective on Jewish history, including the destruction
of the Temple [5.10-13]; other sources for this period in Roman history include
Tacitus, Histories, 2.1-4, 79-93; 4.81; 5.12-26; Suetonius, Vespasian
5-6; Titus, 4-5; Dio Cassius, Roman History 66.1, 4-7,
15).
- Coins Minted during the Jewish Revolt
- The "Burnt House": Excavated House in Jerusalem Destroyed by Romans
- Replicas of Roman Siege Engine and Catapult
- Roman Coin with "Judaea capta"
- Arch of Titus in Rome
- Roman Siege of Masada
- Roman Siege of Gamla
7.
Nero’s Persecution of the Church Nero
succeeded the murdered Claudius as emperor in 54. Although he is not
mentioned by name in the New Testament, he is the Caesar referred to
in Acts 25-28 and Phil 4:2. In the latter part of his reign, by all
accounts Nero was a moral degenerate and madman, who abused his power
as emperor, being responsible for many murders. Because of the certain
threat of imminent revolt, Nero had no choice but to commit suicide
in 68.
his
purpose in arranging for the burning of Rome, according to Suetonius,
was to be able to rebuild the city on a grander scale (see Tacitus,
Annals 15.38-43; Suetonius, Nero 38). In order to quell
this rumor, Nero blamed the Christians for the fire, who, known for
their anti-social attitude (odium humani generis), made perfect
scapegoats. Beginning probably in 65, Nero ordered that confessed Christians
be arrested and interrogated; then on their disclosures (of the existence
of others who were Christians, presumably) vast numbers of Christians
were convicted and executed in cruel and unusual ways: "They
were covered with the skins of wild beasts and torn to death by dogs;
or they were fastened on crosses, and, when daylight failed, were burned
to serve as lamps by night" (Tacitus, Annals, 15.44; see
Suetonius, Nero, 16.2; 1 Clement 6). According to early
and reliable tradition, among the Christians who died during Nero’s
persecution were the apostles Peter and Paul (Eusebius, H.E.
2.25; 3.1); Paul was beheaded, whereas Peter was crucified (according
to Origen, Peter was crucified upside down at his own request). Tacitus
reports that those who witnessed the public execution of Christians
took pity on them, contrary to Nero’s intention, because they believed
that they were merely victims of one man’s cruelty. There is no clear
indication how long the persecution lasted or whether it was continuous
or intermittent. Nevertheless, with Nero’s death in 68, the pogrom against
the Roman Christians came to an end, for Vespasian did not have the
same hostile designs towards the church.Sorce: http://www.abu.nb.ca/courses/ntintro/History1.htm
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